Intertextuality

When one text references another, including film to film

Narrative

How does a film tell a story?


Story can be split in two ways: Story and Plot


Story = everything that happens
Plot = what filmmaker chooses to show you


e.g. in BOTSW, it could start at Hushpuppy's birth


Basic storytelling tools:


7 Story Types
Monster attacks, hero steps forward with a side kick + helper
A hero is doubtful of abilities and rejects destiny, then embraces goal and becomes hero
Flawed character meets woman of dreams, overcomes flaw and becomes a better person, fall out and separate before reuniting at end
etc.


Conventional Narrative
Narrative has cause and effect with an overall trajectory of enigma resolution
NCFOM doesn't have linearity - Anton taken out by accident etc.
The trajectory is what the plot is aimed for
Enigma resolution is fixing a problem


Most narratives focus on a goal driven main character
Character has goal they need to complete - a quest
Usually a time limit to complete the goal


This narrative is based on a series of cause and effect events


Syd Field's 3 Act Structure
Act 1: Set up - usually first 1/4, learn about world, incident that disrupts normality
Plot point one - an event takes the plot in a new direction and ends Act 1 Anton killing two associates


Act 2: Confrontation - usually next 2 1/4s, hero undergoes development, improves skills or awareness
Plot point two - ends with another major plot point, sets up Ac 3, Llewellyn dying


Act 3: Resolution - usually last 1/4 films climax


When in Active spectatorship, narrative isn't clear, so the plot points can vary depending on perspective i.e. BOTSW a plot point 1 could be Wink in hospital gown or the flood


Claude Levi-Strauss - Binary Opposites
All narratives about binary opposites

Good vs. Evil, Man vs. Machine, Man vs. Nature, Civilization vs. Wild, Loyalty vs. Betrayal
Useful for identifying themes, which effects audience therefore spectatorship
The type of spectator you are governs with binary oppositions + themes you see
Blade Runner: Slavery vs. Freedom, Man vs. Machine, Duty vs. Morality, Man vs. God/Father vs. Son
Vertigo: Perception vs. Reality, Money vs. Morality, Man vs. Himself, Loyalty vs. Betrayal
No Country for Old Men: Rich vs. Poor, Individual vs. Corporation, Old vs. New
Beasts of the Southern Wild: Civilization vs. Wild, Utopia vs. Dystopia, Nature vs. Artifice, Childhood vs. Adulthood, Imagination vs. Reality, Freedom vs. Responsibility


Todorov's Theory of Narrative
Most conventional films follow the structure
Equilibrium - Normality in the world
Disruption of Equilibrium - Something changes the status quo
Recognition of Disruption - Characters recognize the disruption
Attempt to Repair the Disruption - Making it right
Equilibrium - Doesn't have to be the same as before, but disruption ended


Alternative Narratives
Jean Luc Godard - 'I agree that a film should have a beginning, a middle and an end, but not necessarily in that order'


Some narratives do not follow this basic structure. Called 'Alternative Narratives'


Some narratives are out of the sequence or disjointed. Tell the stories in the wrong order or use flashbacks


Can go further by not having logical order to story


Some narratives are made up of little short stories - called 'Episodic Narratives'


Omniscient or Restricted Narratives
Omniscient - Audience knows more than the characters, great for tension + suspense (i.e. coin toss in NCFOM, we know more than the petrol station employee)
Restricted - Only know as much as the characters (usually protagonist)
Linear or Non-Linear Narrative
Linear - Show events in chronological order)
Non-Linear - Not chronological, via flashbacks, montages etc.
Open or Closed Narrative
How the narrative ends
Open - Audience is left wondering what will happen next at end of film. E.g. a cliffhanger
Closed - Narrative ends with a definite ending where everything is resolved 'happily ever after'
Single or Multi-Strand Narrative
Single strand - Only one story in film, follows protagonist
Multi-strand - When the film has more than one story, involving several characters of equal importance
Enigma
A riddle or puzzle to be solved
Most narrative driven by an enigma that drives film. Introduced when equilibrium is disrupted.
Keeps viewer guessing interested story. Not answered until end.

Ideology

A set of views and ideas and values that are held by a society or a group within society

Societies have dominant ideologies - lying is bad

Karl Marx - the problem with society is that we changed from the ideological to the material

Not all ideologies are true

Different groups have different ideologies

Ideology falls in to two different categories in film:
Explicit
Films like superhero, war, westerns - violence solves problems
Good vs Evil
Love will conquer all - Rom Coms
Golden era Hollywood reenforces dominant ideology
Implicit
Harry Poter films - equality, chosen one isn't nice, shouldn't judge on impressions etc.

Some films appear to be neutral in terms of ideology but always will have implicit ideology

Echo Chamber
Surrounded by own views and doesn't listen to others

Things that contribute to a film's ideology:
Genre
Context of production (time, place it was made)
Target audience
Diegesis (setting)
Perspective of audience
Dialogue
Ending/resolution
Ideologies and views of crew
Characterisations (think about film behind a different character)
Pace
Narrative

Binary oppositions for set up in the narrative will set up the ideology

Performance

Things I expect from a good performance:
Change in characters, and to be able to tell when they change
Something relatable I can find meaning out of
Needs to be believable - help in suspension of disbelief
Can convey emotion, hopefully without them stating it
Need to see character not actor

Physical Expression

Movement - Rachel's movement like a doll, Priss dying, Roy moves slowly

Individual body language - Norman always eating in tense moments

Use of props and scenery - Deckard holding gun

Vocal Delivery

Tone - changes how a line is shown (emotion) - Roy's speech from forlorn to angry

Speed/Pace - a slow delivery shows calm, power

Emotion - how a character feels

Accent - Relatability - This in England

Contrast delivery with content of whats being delivered - juxtaposition

Interaction

How the actors 'connect' with each other - Grease Travolta - Zuko

How do they react to/around each other - Batman + Robin

What do you learn from their interactions - Rachel forced scene

Staging and Choreography

How have the characters been positioned in the shot?

How much freedom of movement do they have?

How naturalistic is thei style of movement?

What do you learn from their movements?

Auteur

French word that means author

Concept that a filmmaker has such a distinctive style that they can be regarded as the 'author' of the film - it's down to them. And hat their style is so recognisable you can tell who made it without being told. In order to do this, the auteur must be someone which has direct control over the production, and has ouvre - a substantial body of work. They will have certain characteristics in their films that are consistent, e.g:
Aesthetics
Repeated themes
Crew (performers + crew)
Motif cinematography
Any film form features (mise en scene, cinematography, sound, editing)

Christopher Nolan
Favours non-linear narratives
Reuses actors

Wes Anderson
Reuses actors
High colour contrast
Symmetry
Steady cam
Unusual framing
Similar themes, settings

Quentin Tarantino
Use of music - late 60s-70s pop music
Excessive violence
Non-linear narrative
Expletives
Reuses actors

Ridley Scott
Strong female characters
Cutting away from violence - Often to 'seeing' - Woman on billboard, searchlights from blimp after Priss' death
Sci Fi
Realistic acting in unrealistic setting - Dialogue, attitude
Low key lighting, high contrast colour - Neon, umbrellas, woman looking billboard
Themes of humanity and identity
Isolated protagonist - Deckard (but only the Replicants aren't isolated in BR)
Long takes
Title card
Voyeurism - But to a more limited extent than Hitchcock - ie shots before entering eye shop

Alfred Hitchcock
Eccentric characterisations
Mystery and suspense via omniscient narrative - Finding out Judy/Madeline's true identity
Plays with audience nerves
Slow paced
Use of music
MacGuffin - Paranormal in Vertigo
Voyeurism - Scotty's stalking of Judy
Black comedy
Purposeful
Placement of objects - everything intentional
Cameo
Emasculated males - Scotty submissive to Midge, weak due to acrophobia
Themes of undeserved punishment (stems form childhood)
Plot line of films often relate to characters having psychological issues - Scotty's paranoia/delusion


Two types of Auteur - Thematically and Cinematically

Comparison of auteur trits between Scott and Hitchcock
Rachel a passively strong character, Priss and Zhora combatants, in comparison to debateably no strong characters in Vertigo
Vertigo Mise-en-scene - shot in studio vast majority of time, costume main focus of the last section but say nothing personal about them. Differs massively to Blade Runner, as each costume is unique
Both films have very active spectatorship - opinions on actions and motives of characters and over all themes

Character Archetypes

Protagonist - Main character, follows for whole film, usually good guy but not always

Antagonist - Generally bad guy opposes the protagonist, usually defeated at the end. Either evil or diet (not that bad) evil

Anti Hero - Bad guy in their own film, lacks conventional hero qualities, much more common in modern films

Side Kick - Usually comic relief, secondary to protagonist, audience voice, doesn't get the girl

Tragic Backstory - Ie Batman, had something bad happen to them and that's what motivates them

Iconography

Instantly recognisable
Can be polysemic - multiple meanings, but less likely
Signs so powerful we quickly reach a connotation
Ie cowboy hats, yellow cabs, lightsabers, Ring in LOTR

For cowboy films specifically: Stetsons, 6 gun, Sheriff star

Make audience think of one person, place or setting

Key Terms

• Diegesis - The temporal and spacial location of the narrative, ie when and where its set
• 180 degree rule - In conversation film on the opposite shoulder of each speaker, ie shoulder A left shoulder B right
• Protagonist - person who's story you follow

Lighting

High Key
Floods mise-en-scene with light, everything seems lit fairly evenly. Often realistic or upbeat

Low Key
Leaves parts of mise-en-scene in darkness, can cast shadows. More stylistic. Can connote danger, mystery, downbeat. Used in more serious drama, thriller, horror.

Camera Techniques

Shot Types

Two Shot
When two characters are on screen at once (usually a mid shot)

OTS Shot
Over the Shoulder
Used for conversations and looking
Controlled by something called 180 degree rule - make sure opposite shoulders are used

Profile
Framed form side, with eye-line looking away from the camera or offscreen
Directs attention to where they're looking

Cranes/Topshots
Good for establishing shots, can film a whole location from up top
Makes characters seem smaller, insignifiant

Angles

Low Angle
Looking up, camera down
Suggests power

High Angle
Looking down camera up
Suggests vulnerability

Dutch Tilt/Canted Angle
Suggests something is wrong, confusion or disorientation
Common in horror

Zooming in and out/Tracking
Usually camera going in, because zooming in loses focus, instead adjust lens shows focus, connotes being watched/someone looking

Camera Movement

Panning and Tilting
Basic camera movement techniques
Pan left-right
Tilt up-down
Camera is in fixed position and doesn't move

Tracking
In tracking/dolly shots the whole camera moves to allow smooth but limited movement
Steadicam is a camera operator fixed with a harness. Allows for relatively smooth movement and for the camera to follow the action unrestricted

Handheld
No tripod, tracks or harnesses, just the camera operator
Jerky, chaotic movement
Gaining popularity in mainstream media
Gives realism

Lenses

Focus Pull
When you switch focus form fore to back and vice versa

Lenses
Distance and Respective

Wide Angle Lense
Fore-, mid-, back0 in focus, can make distances feel further apart + distortion

Telephoto Lense
Opposite-, smaller-, distance smaller

Production Design

Production Designer is responsible to this, ie the overall look of the film. Includes setting and props.

Mise-en-Scene

Translates as 'to be placed in a scene' ie everything in a frame

Character, setting, props, costume

Costume, hair, make up all tell the audience about the character. Personality, circumstance, role etc, and also the genre of the film.
E.g. scars make a character look aggressive, violent

Costumes make characters appear uniform, drone-like, dehumanises them. Ie masks - mystery, whatever's behind it (especially an individual rather than a group) it assumes there's something wrong with them.

Black doesn't necessarily mean evil, could mean they deal with evil, do things rough etc.

Points and angles have connotations of aggression. Curved, roundness connotes gentleness, love.

Verisimilitude

Something that has the appearance of being true/real

Helps get audience into story.
Can be created in lots of ways (sets, props, sound etc.) especially costume where/when a film's set and the setting

Settings

Refers to set+location
Helps create verisimilitude as the place is real
Where the film takes place
Can tell you what the genre is
Like costume, can tell you info about everything and everyone involved

Props

Similar to costume
Can also be an important part of the story (ie Lord of the Rings)
Usually to help verisimilitude

Colour

Can be used in any aspect of mise-en-scene
Can add to atmosphere or certain ideas
Ie blue = sadness, calm, red = love, danger
Hot colours create an upbeat mood, low colours downbeat mood, muted or low contrast colours add to realism
Exaggerated ot high contrast makes film more stylistic

Semiotics

Study of signs
Signs communicate info
Could be images, colours, sound, gestures, words, shapes etc. that connote info or ideas
All culturally dependent - therefore mean different things in different contexts

Eg:
In horror, sting instruments mean something is gonna happen, in romance its a sign of emotional intensity
Ie context, genre audience film specific
Eg a No Entry sign is bright red, which connotes danger


Anatomy of a Sign

Two parts:
Signifier - The form a sign takes (e.g. sound, images, words)
Signified - The idea or image the sigh suggests

Some sighs signify more than others - can have more than one meaning or is more open to interpretation.

Films also use signs via micro-elements (mise-en-scene, editing, sound, cinematography, performance)
Ie sunglasses on Neo signify mystery, importance, used to massively humanise people
Or In Scott Pilgrim vs The World the groups looks unique, small, grouped together in their weirdness

Film analysis can be tricky as you can see and hear many sighs at once

Denotation and Connotation

Denotation - Literal interpretation, simplest meaning
Connotation - Inferred meaning, what you read into the signs

Ie Disney logo connotations - mainly from our experience instead of an unbiased view

3 Step Film Analysis

1. Identify micro elements
E.g. shaking camera work, lighting from below

2. Explain what micro-elements suggest or signify
E.g. agents suits connote uniformity group, steady drum has military connotations

3. What effect does this have on the audience?
E.g. This tells the audience the character is not to be trusted

Another way to analyse a micro element is to imagine if it wasn't there, and what effect that would have on the audience.
If in doubt, take it out

Cinematography

The art of motion picture photography

The cinematographer/DP is the person responsible  for camera and lighting in film. Could be solo or in charge of a crew.

Camerawork
Shot types and framing
Lenses
Movement

Lighting
Lighting
Colour and contrast

Shot Types
Extreme Close Up (ECU) - Focussed on one person/object
Close Up (CU) - A face or object fits most of the frame
Medium Close Up (MCU) - Head + Shoulders
Midshot (MS) - Waist up
Long Shot (LS) - Can see whole person/object and background around them
Extreme Long Shot (ELS) Person or object is very small, focus on background, also can be Establishing Shot - Sets place of scene



Framing

Where characters and objects are in the shot

Rule of Thirds
Characters or objects should always be on a third - 3x3 grid
Placing space in between characters can show emotional distance